C++ Lambdas: Closures, Captures, Generic Lambdas, std::function vs auto & Functional Patterns (C++23)

// Minimal lambda (no captures, no params, void return):
auto hello = []{ std::cout << "Hello!\n"; };
hello();

// Full syntax:
auto multiply = [factor = 10](int x, int y) mutable noexcept -> int {
    factor++;          // mutable: can modify captured copies
    return x * y * factor;
};

// Immediately called (IIFE):
int result = [](int a, int b) { return a + b; }(3, 4); // result = 7

// What the compiler generates (conceptual equivalent):
struct __Lambda_multiply {
    int factor;                           // Captured value
    int operator()(int x, int y) noexcept {
        factor++;
        return x * y * factor;
    }
};
// auto multiply = __Lambda_multiply{10};

int x = 10;
int y = 20;
std::string name = "Alice";

// === Default captures ===
auto cap_all_by_val = [=]{ return x + y; };        // Copies x and y
auto cap_all_by_ref = [&]{ x++; y++; };            // References to x, y (careful: lifetime!)
// Note: [=] and [&] only capture what is actually USED in the body

// === Selective captures ===
auto selective = [x, &y]{ return x + y; };          // x by value, y by reference
auto with_this  = [this, x]{ process(x); };         // Capture this pointer + x by value

// === Init captures (C++14): computed or renamed captures ===
int a = 5, b = 3;
auto init_cap = [sum = a + b, product = a * b]() {
    return std::format("{} + {} = {}, {} * {} = {}", a, b, sum, a, b, product);
    // Note: a and b NOT captured - only sum and product are
};

// === Capture this vs capture *this ===
class Widget {
    int value_ = 42;
public:
    auto get_adder() {
        // BAD: captures this pointer - if Widget is destroyed, lambda dangles!
        return [this](int n) { return value_ + n; };
        
        // GOOD (C++17): capture *this - copies the entire Widget into the lambda
        return [*this](int n) { return value_ + n; }; // self-contained copy
    }
};

#include <memory>
#include <functional>

auto resource = std::make_unique<ExpensiveResource>();

// WRONG: Can't copy unique_ptr
// auto task = [resource]{ resource->process(); }; // ERROR: copy required

// CORRECT: Init capture with move
auto task = [res = std::move(resource)]() mutable {
    res->process();
    // resource is now nullptr/empty
};
// resource is now null - ownership transferred to lambda

// Storing in a vector of tasks:
std::vector<std::function<void()>> tasks;

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    auto data = std::make_unique<WorkItem>(i);
    tasks.emplace_back([item = std::move(data)]() {
        item->execute();
    });
}
// Each task owns its unique_ptr exclusively

// C++14: auto in parameter list
auto print = [](const auto& value) {
    std::cout << value << '\n';
};
print(42);           // Generates: operator()(const int& value)
print(3.14);         // Generates: operator()(const double& value)
print("hello");      // Generates: operator()(const char[6]& value)

// C++20: explicit template syntax in lambdas
auto typed_print = []<typename T>(const T& value) {
    std::cout << std::format("Type: {}, Value: {}\n",
                             typeid(T).name(), value);
};

// C++20: constrained generic lambda with concepts
auto add_numbers = []<std::integral T>(T a, T b) { return a + b; };
add_numbers(3, 4);      // OK: ints satisfy integral concept
// add_numbers(1.5, 2.5); // ERROR: doubles don't satisfy integral

// C++20: variadic template lambda
auto sum_all = []<typename... Args>(Args&&... args) {
    return (... + std::forward<Args>(args)); // Fold expression
};
auto total = sum_all(1, 2, 3, 4, 5); // 15
auto fsum  = sum_all(1.5f, 2.5f);    // 4.0f

int counter = 0;

// Without mutable: capture is const, cannot modify
auto count_ro = [counter]() {
    // counter++; // ERROR: assignment of read-only captured variable
    return counter;
};

// With mutable: can modify the captured COPY (NOT the original)
auto count_mut = [counter]() mutable {
    return ++counter; // Modifies the copy inside the lambda
};

std::cout << count_mut() << '\n'; // 1
std::cout << count_mut() << '\n'; // 2
std::cout << counter << '\n';     // Still 0! Original unchanged

// Stateful generator using mutable:
auto make_counter = [n = 0]() mutable { return n++; };
std::cout << make_counter() << '\n'; // 0
std::cout << make_counter() << '\n'; // 1
std::cout << make_counter() << '\n'; // 2

#include <algorithm>
#include <ranges>
#include <vector>

std::vector<int> nums = {5, 2, 8, 1, 9, 3, 7, 4, 6};

// Sort with custom comparator:
std::sort(nums.begin(), nums.end(), [](int a, int b){ return a > b; }); // Descending

// Filter with ranges (C++20):
auto evens = nums | std::views::filter([](int n){ return n % 2 == 0; });

// Transform:
auto squares = nums
    | std::views::filter([](int n){ return n > 3; })
    | std::views::transform([](int n){ return n * n; });

// find_if:
auto it = std::find_if(nums.begin(), nums.end(), [](int n){ return n > 5; });

// count_if:
int odds = std::count_if(nums.begin(), nums.end(), [](int n){ return n % 2 != 0; });

// remove_if + erase:
nums.erase(
    std::remove_if(nums.begin(), nums.end(), [](int n){ return n < 4; }),
    nums.end()
);

// Comparator for priority_queue (min-heap):
auto cmp = [](const Task& a, const Task& b){ return a.priority > b.priority; };
std::priority_queue<Task, std::vector<Task>, decltype(cmp)> task_queue(cmp);

// Initialize const from complex logic without a named helper function:
const int processed_count = [&data]() {
    int count = 0;
    for (const auto& item : data) {
        if (item.is_valid() && item.value > 0) count++;
    }
    return count;
}(); // Immediately invoked

// Use in member initializer lists:
class Config {
    const std::vector<std::string> allowed_hosts_;
public:
    Config(const std::string& config_file)
        : allowed_hosts_([&config_file]() {
            std::vector<std::string> hosts;
            parse_hosts(config_file, hosts);
            return hosts;
          }())  // IIFE in initializer list
    {}
};

// Complex constexpr initialization:
constexpr auto LOOKUP_TABLE = [](){
    std::array<uint8_t, 256> table{};
    for (int i = 0; i < 256; i++) {
        table[i] = __builtin_popcount(i); // Population count
    }
    return table;
}();  // Computed at compile time

// auto: zero-overhead, lambda type preserved
auto fast_sorter = [](int a, int b){ return a < b; };
std::sort(v.begin(), v.end(), fast_sorter); // Inlined by compiler - fastest

// std::function: type-erased, extra overhead
std::function<bool(int, int)> slow_sorter = [](int a, int b){ return a < b; };
std::sort(v.begin(), v.end(), slow_sorter); // Virtual-call-like dispatch - slower

// std::function overhead sources:
// 1. Type erasure via internal virtual dispatch (~3-5ns per call)
// 2. Small buffer optimization (<=~16 bytes): stack allocation
// 3. Larger closures: heap allocation!

// RULE: Use auto when type doesn't need to cross interface boundaries
// RULE: Use std::function only when you need to store heterogeneous callables

// Storing callbacks in a class (correct use of std::function):
class EventBus {
    std::vector<std::function<void(const Event&)>> handlers_;
public:
    void subscribe(std::function<void(const Event&)> handler) {
        handlers_.push_back(std::move(handler));
    }
    void publish(const Event& e) {
        for (auto& h : handlers_) h(e); // Must handle any callable
    }
};

// Pre-C++23: std::function (with overhead)
std::function<int(int)> factorial = [&factorial](int n) -> int {
    return n <= 1 ? 1 : n * factorial(n - 1);
};

// Pre-C++23: Y-combinator (zero overhead, complex)
auto Y = [](auto f) {
    return [f](auto x) { return f(f, x); };
};
auto factorial_y = Y([](auto self, int n) -> int {
    return n <= 1 ? 1 : n * self(self, n - 1);
});

// C++23: "deducing this" - explicit object parameter - direct recursion!
auto factorial_23 = [](this auto self, int n) -> int {
    return n <= 1 ? 1 : n * self(n - 1); // self refers to the lambda itself
};
// Zero overhead: same as a regular recursive function
int f10 = factorial_23(10); // 3628800